<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
<!DOCTYPE root>
<article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xmlns:ali="http://www.niso.org/schemas/ali/1.0/" article-type="research-article" dtd-version="1.2" xml:lang="en"><front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">Russian Clinical Laboratory Diagnostics</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title xml:lang="en">Russian Clinical Laboratory Diagnostics</journal-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="ru"><trans-title>Клиническая лабораторная диагностика</trans-title></trans-title-group></journal-title-group><issn publication-format="print">0869-2084</issn><issn publication-format="electronic">2412-1320</issn><publisher><publisher-name xml:lang="en">Eco-Vector</publisher-name></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">677667</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.17816/cld677667</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="toc-heading" xml:lang="en"><subject>Original Study Articles</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="toc-heading" xml:lang="ru"><subject>Оригинальные исследования</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="article-type"><subject>Research Article</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title xml:lang="en">Performance of clinical signs and symptoms, rapid and reference laboratory diagnostic tests for diagnosis of human African trypanosomiasis by passive screening in Guinea: a prospective diagnostic accuracy study</article-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="ru"><trans-title>Эффективность клинических признаков и симптомов, быстрых диагностических тестов и референсных лабораторных тестов при диагностике африканского трипаносомоза человека методом пассивного скрининга в Гвинее: проспективное исследование диагностической точности</trans-title></trans-title-group></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0009-0003-5016-9293</contrib-id><name><surname>Camara</surname><given-names>Oumou</given-names></name><address><country country="GN">Guinea</country></address><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Dr. Sci. (Philosophy)</p></bio><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>д-р философ. наук</p></bio><email>veerle.lejon@ird.fr</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7785-6649</contrib-id><name><surname>Mamadou</surname><given-names>Camara</given-names></name><address><country country="GN">Guinea</country></address><email>mamadou.camara@iutv.univ-paris13.fr</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4043-1644</contrib-id><name><surname>Falzon</surname><given-names>Laura Cristina</given-names></name><address><country country="KE">Kenya</country></address><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Dr. Sci. (Veterinary Medicine), PhD (Population Medicine)</p></bio><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>д-р мед. наук (Ветеринарная медицина), PhD (Популяционная медицина)</p></bio><email>laura.falzon@liverpool.ac.uk</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3936-7718</contrib-id><name><surname>Ilboudo</surname><given-names>Hamidou</given-names></name><address><country country="BF">Burkina Faso</country></address><email>hamidou_ilboudo@hotmail.com</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0224-4458</contrib-id><name><surname>Kaboré</surname><given-names>Jacques</given-names></name><address><country country="BF">Burkina Faso</country></address><email>jacqueskabore@yahoo.fr</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5"/><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Compaoré</surname><given-names>Charlie Franck Alfred</given-names></name><address><country country="BF">Burkina Faso</country></address><email>veerle.lejon@ird.fr</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8931-4986</contrib-id><name><surname>Fèvre</surname><given-names>Eric Maurice</given-names></name><address><country country="KE">Kenya</country></address><email>Eric.Fevre@liverpool.ac.uk</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1926-7472</contrib-id><name><surname>Büscher</surname><given-names>Philippe</given-names></name><address><country country="BE">Belgium</country></address><email>pbuscher@itg.be</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3804-5426</contrib-id><name><surname>Bucheton</surname><given-names>Bruno</given-names></name><address><country country="GN">Guinea</country></address><email>bruno.bucheton@ird.fr</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6795-0962</contrib-id><name><surname>Lejon</surname><given-names>Veerle</given-names></name><address><country country="FR">France</country></address><bio xml:lang="en"><p>PhD (Biochemistry)</p></bio><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>PhD (Биохимия)</p></bio><email>veerle.lejon@ird.fr</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8"/></contrib></contrib-group><aff-alternatives id="aff1"><aff><institution xml:lang="en">Programme National de Lutte contre la Trypanosomiase Humaine Africaine</institution></aff><aff><institution xml:lang="ru">Национальная программа по борьбе с африканским трипаносомозом человека</institution></aff></aff-alternatives><aff-alternatives id="aff2"><aff><institution xml:lang="en">International Livestock Research Institute</institution></aff><aff><institution xml:lang="ru">Международный научно-исследовательский институт животноводства</institution></aff></aff-alternatives><aff-alternatives id="aff3"><aff><institution xml:lang="en">Institute of infection, veterinary and ecological sciences, University of Liverpool</institution></aff><aff><institution xml:lang="ru">Институт инфекционных, ветеринарных и экологических наук Ливерпульского университета</institution></aff></aff-alternatives><aff-alternatives id="aff4"><aff><institution xml:lang="en">Institute for Health Science Research</institution></aff><aff><institution xml:lang="ru">Институт научных исследований в области здравоохранения</institution></aff></aff-alternatives><aff-alternatives id="aff5"><aff><institution xml:lang="en">International Research and Development Center on Livestock in Sub-Humid Areas</institution></aff><aff><institution xml:lang="ru">Международный центр исследований и разработок в области животноводства в субгумидных районах</institution></aff></aff-alternatives><aff-alternatives id="aff6"><aff><institution xml:lang="en">University of Nazi Boni</institution></aff><aff><institution xml:lang="ru">Университет Нази Бони</institution></aff></aff-alternatives><aff-alternatives id="aff7"><aff><institution xml:lang="en">Institute of Tropical Medicine</institution></aff><aff><institution xml:lang="ru">Институт тропической медицины</institution></aff></aff-alternatives><aff-alternatives id="aff8"><aff><institution xml:lang="en">University of Montpellier</institution></aff><aff><institution xml:lang="ru">Университет Монпелье</institution></aff></aff-alternatives><pub-date date-type="preprint" iso-8601-date="2025-04-17" publication-format="electronic"><day>17</day><month>04</month><year>2025</year></pub-date><pub-date date-type="pub" iso-8601-date="2024-05-13" publication-format="electronic"><day>13</day><month>05</month><year>2024</year></pub-date><volume>69</volume><issue>2</issue><issue-title xml:lang="en"/><issue-title xml:lang="ru"/><fpage>21</fpage><lpage>37</lpage><history><date date-type="received" iso-8601-date="2025-03-24"><day>24</day><month>03</month><year>2025</year></date><date date-type="accepted" iso-8601-date="2025-03-24"><day>24</day><month>03</month><year>2025</year></date></history><permissions><copyright-statement xml:lang="en">Copyright ©; 2025, Camara O., Mamadou C., Falzon L.C., Ilboudo H., Kaboré J., Compaoré C.F., Fèvre E.M., Büscher P., Bucheton B., Lejon V.</copyright-statement><copyright-statement xml:lang="ru">Copyright ©; 2025, Camara O., Mamadou C., Falzon L.C., Ilboudo H., Kaboré J., Compaoré C.F., Fèvre E.M., Büscher P., Bucheton B., Lejon V.</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2025</copyright-year><copyright-holder xml:lang="en">Camara O., Mamadou C., Falzon L.C., Ilboudo H., Kaboré J., Compaoré C.F., Fèvre E.M., Büscher P., Bucheton B., Lejon V.</copyright-holder><copyright-holder xml:lang="ru">Camara O., Mamadou C., Falzon L.C., Ilboudo H., Kaboré J., Compaoré C.F., Fèvre E.M., Büscher P., Bucheton B., Lejon V.</copyright-holder><ali:free_to_read xmlns:ali="http://www.niso.org/schemas/ali/1.0/" start_date="2028-05-31"/><license><ali:license_ref xmlns:ali="http://www.niso.org/schemas/ali/1.0/">https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0</ali:license_ref></license></permissions><self-uri xlink:href="https://kld-journal.fedlab.ru/0869-2084/article/view/677667">https://kld-journal.fedlab.ru/0869-2084/article/view/677667</self-uri><abstract xml:lang="en"><p><bold>Background:</bold><italic> </italic>We examined which clinical signs and symptoms are associated with human African trypanosomiasis (HAT), and assessed the performance of selected clinical presentations, of rapid diagnostic tests (RDT), and of reference laboratory tests on dried blood spots (DBS) for diagnosing HAT in Guinea.</p> <p><bold>Materials and methods:</bold><italic> </italic>The study took place in 14 health facilities in Guinea, where 2345 clinical suspects were tested with RDTs (HAT Sero-<italic>K</italic>-Set, rHAT Sero-Strip, and SD Bioline HAT). Seropositives underwent parasitological examination (reference test) to confirm HAT and their DBS were tested in indirect enzyme-linked immunoassay (ELISA)/Trypanosoma brucei gambiense, trypanolysis, Loopamp Trypanosoma brucei Detection kit (LAMP) and m18S quantitative PCR (qPCR). Multivariable regression analysis assessed association of clinical presentation with HAT.</p> <p><bold>Results:</bold><italic> </italic>The HAT prevalence, as confirmed parasitologically, was 2.0% (48/2345, 95% CI: 1.5–2.7%). Odds ratios (OR) for HAT were increased for participants with swollen lymph nodes (OR=96.7, 95% CI: 20.7–452.0), important weight loss (OR=20.4, 95% CI: 7.05–58.9), severe itching (OR=45.9, 95% CI: 7.3–288.7) or motor disorders (OR=4.5, 95% CI: 0.89–22.5). HAT Sero-<italic>K</italic>-Set, rHAT Sero-Strip, and SD Bioline HAT were respectively 97.5% (95% CI: 96.8–98.1%), 99.4% (95% CI: 99.0–99.7%) and 97.9% (95% CI: 97.2–98.4%) specific, and 100% (95% CI: 92.5–100.0%), 59.6% (95% CI: 44.3–73.3%) and 93.8% (95% CI: 82.8–98.7%) sensitive for HAT. The RDT’s positive and negative predictive values ranged from 45.2–66.7% and 99.2–100% respectively.</p> <p><bold>Conclusion:</bold><italic> </italic>Diagnostic performances of HAT Sero-<italic>K</italic>-Set and SD Bioline HAT are sufficient for referring positives to microscopy. Trypanolysis on DBS may discriminate HAT patients from false RDT positives.</p> <p>This article is a translation of the article by Camara O, Camara M, Falzon LC, et al. Performance of clinical signs and symptoms, rapid and reference laboratory diagnostic tests for diagnosis of human African trypanosomiasis by passive screening in Guinea: a prospective diagnostic accuracy study. <italic>Infect Dis Poverty. </italic>2023;12(1):22. doi: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s40249-023-01076-1">10.1186/s40249-023-01076-1</ext-link></p></abstract><trans-abstract xml:lang="ru"><p><bold>Обоснование.</bold> Были изучены клинические признаки и симптомы, связанные с африканским трипаносомозом человека (АТЧ), а также оценена эффективность отдельных клинических проявлений заболевания, быстрых диагностических тестов (БДТ) и стандартных (эталонных) лабораторных тестов, выполняемых методом сухих пятен крови (СПК) для диагностики АТЧ в Гвинее.</p> <p><bold>Материалы и методы.</bold> В исследовании, которое проводилось в 14 медицинских учреждениях Гвинеи, приняли участие 2345 человек с подозрением на АТЧ, прошедших диагностическое обследование методом СПК (тесты HAT Sero-<italic>K</italic>-Set, rHAT Sero-Strip и SD Bioline HAT). Серопозитивные пациенты проходили паразитологическое исследование (референсный тест) для подтверждения АТЧ, в ходе которого СПК тестировались методом непрямого иммуноферментного анализа (ИФА) / иммунного трипанолиза <italic>Trypanosoma brucei gambiense </italic>с использованием диагностического набора Loopamp <italic>Trypanosoma brucei </italic>Detection kit (LAMP) и количественной полимеразной цепной реакции для амплификации фрагментов гена 18S рРнк (m18S qПЦР).</p> <p><bold>Результаты.</bold> Распространенность АТЧ, подтвержденная результатами паразитологических исследований, составила 2,0% (48/2345, 95% ДИ 1,5–2,7%). Отношение шансов (ОШ) для АТЧ было более высоким у участников с увеличенными лимфоузлами (ОШ=96,7, 95% ДИ 20,7–452,0), значительной потерей массы тела (ОШ=20,4, 95% ДИ 7,05–58,9), сильным зудом (ОШ=45,9, 95% ДИ 7,3–288,7) или двигательными расстройствами (ОШ=4,5, 95% ДИ 0,89–22,5). В отношении АТЧ специфичность тестов HAT Sero-<italic>K</italic>-Set, rHAT Sero-Strip и SD Bioline HAT составила 97,5% (95% ДИ 96,8–98,1%), 99,4% (95% ДИ 99,0–99,7%) и 97,9% (95% ДИ 97,2–98,4%) соответственно, чувствительность — 100% (95% ДИ 92,5–100,0%), 59,6% (95% ДИ 44,3–73,3%) и 93,8% (95% ДИ 82,8–98,7%) соответственно. Положительная и отрицательная прогностическая ценность БДТ варьировала в пределах 45,2–66,7% и 99,2–100% соответственно.</p> <p><bold>Заключение.</bold> При положительных результатах тестов HAT Sero-<italic>K</italic>-Set и SD Bioline HAT больные направлялись на микроскопическое исследование. В случае ложноположительных результатов экспресс-тестов АТЧ выявляли с помощью иммунного трипанолиза методом СПК.</p> <p>Настоящая статья представляет собой перевод статьи: Camara O, Camara M, Falzon LC, et al. Performance of clinical signs and symptoms, rapid and reference laboratory diagnostic tests for diagnosis of human African trypanosomiasis by passive screening in Guinea: a prospective diagnostic accuracy study. <italic>Infect Dis Poverty. </italic>2023;12(1):22. doi: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s40249-023-01076-1">10.1186/s40249-023-01076-1</ext-link></p></trans-abstract><kwd-group xml:lang="en"><kwd>Human African trypanosomiasis</kwd><kwd>Trypanosoma brucei gambiense</kwd><kwd>diagnosis</kwd><kwd>clinical</kwd><kwd>rapid diagnostic test</kwd><kwd>sensitivity</kwd><kwd>specificity</kwd><kwd>dried blood spot</kwd><kwd>trypanolysis</kwd></kwd-group><kwd-group xml:lang="ru"><kwd>африканский трипаносомоз человека</kwd><kwd>Trypanosoma brucei gambiense</kwd><kwd>диагностика</kwd><kwd>клинический</kwd><kwd>быстрый диагностический тест</kwd><kwd>чувствительность</kwd><kwd>специфичность</kwd><kwd>сухое пятно крови</kwd><kwd>трипанолиз</kwd></kwd-group><funding-group/></article-meta></front><body></body><back><ref-list><ref id="B1"><label>1.</label><mixed-citation>Franco JR, Cecchi G, Paone M, et al. The elimination of human African trypanosomiasis: achievements in relation to WHO road map targets for 2020. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2022;16:e0010047. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0010047</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B2"><label>2.</label><mixed-citation>Kagbadouno MS, Camara M, Rouamba J, et al. Epidemiology of sleeping sickness in Boffa (Guinea): where are the trypanosomes? PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2012;6: e1949. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0001949</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B3"><label>3.</label><mixed-citation>Camara O, Biéler S, Bucheton B, et al. Accelerating elimination of sleeping sickness from the Guinean littoral through enhanced screening in the post-Ebola context: a retrospective analysis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2021;15:e0009163. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0009163</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B4"><label>4.</label><mixed-citation>Kagbadouno M, Camara O, Camara M, et al. Ebola outbreak brings to light an unforeseen impact of tsetse control on sleeping sickness transmission in Guinea. BioRxiv. 2018;5: 202762. doi: 10.1101/202762</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B5"><label>5.</label><mixed-citation>Snijders R, Fukinsia A, Claeys Y, et al. Costs and outcomes of integrated human African trypanosomiasis surveillance system using rapid diagnostic tests, Democratic Republic of the Congo. Emerg Infect Dis. 2021;27:2144–2153. doi: 10.3201/eid2708.202399</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B6"><label>6.</label><mixed-citation>Camara M, Ouattara E, Duvignaud A, et al. Impact of the Ebola outbreak on Trypanosoma brucei gambiense infection medical activities in coastal Guinea, 2014–2015: a retrospective analysis from the Guinean national Human African Trypanosomiasis control program. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2017;11:e0006060. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0006060</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B7"><label>7.</label><mixed-citation>World Health Organization. Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases. NTDs &amp; COVID-19. Available from: https://www.who.int/ teams/control-of-neglected-tropical-diseases/overview/ntds-and-covid-19</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B8"><label>8.</label><mixed-citation>Camara M, Camara O, Ilboudo H, et al. Sleeping sickness diagnosis: use of buffy coats improves the sensitivity of the mini anion exchange centrifugation test. Trop Med Int Health. 2010;15:796–799. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3156.2010.02546.x</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B9"><label>9.</label><mixed-citation>Boa YF, Traore MA, Doua F, et al The different present-day clinical picture of human African trypanosomiasis caused by T. b. gambiense. Analysis of 300 cases from a focus in Daloa, Ivory Coast. Bull Soc Pathol Exot Filiales. 1988;81:427–444. (In French)</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B10"><label>10.</label><mixed-citation>Blum J, Schmid C, Burri C. Clinical aspects of 2541 patients with second stage human African trypanosomiasis. Acta Trop. 2006;97:55–64. doi: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2005.08.001</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B11"><label>11.</label><mixed-citation>Palmer JJ, Surur EI, Goch GW, et al. Syndromic algorithms for detection of gambiense human African trypanosomiasis in South Sudan. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2013;7:e2003. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0002003</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B12"><label>12.</label><mixed-citation>Büscher P, Mertens P, Leclipteux T, et al. Sensitivity and specificity of HAT Sero-K-SeT, a rapid diagnostic test for serodiagnosis of sleeping sickness caused by Trypanosoma brucei gambiense: a case-control study. Lancet Glob Health. 2014;2:e359–363. doi: 10.1016/S2214-109X(14)70203-7</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B13"><label>13.</label><mixed-citation>Bisser S, Lumbala C, Nguertoum E, et al. Sensitivity and specificity of a prototype rapid diagnostic test for the detection of Trypanosoma brucei gambiense infection: a multi-centric prospective study. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2016;10:e0004608. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0004608</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B14"><label>14.</label><mixed-citation>Camara O, Camara M, Lejon V, et al. Immune trypanolysis test with blood spotted on filter paper for epidemiological surveillance of sleeping sickness. Trop Med Int Health. 2014;19: 828–831. doi: 10.1111/tmi.12316</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B15"><label>15.</label><mixed-citation>Mumba D, Bohorquez E, Messina J, et al. Prevalence of human African trypanosomiasis in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2011;5:e1246. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0001246</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B16"><label>16.</label><mixed-citation>Inocencio da Luz R, Phanzu DM, Kiabanzawoko ON, et al. Feasibility of a dried blood spot strategy for serological screening and surveillance to monitor elimination of human African trypanosomiasis in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2021;15:e0009407. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0009407</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B17"><label>17.</label><mixed-citation>Wamboga C, Matovu E, Bessell PR, Picado A, Biéler S, Ndung’u JM. Enhanced passive screening and diagnosis for gambiense human African trypanosomiasis in north-western Uganda — moving towards elimination. PLoS ONE. 2017;12: e0186429.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B18"><label>18.</label><mixed-citation>Compaoré CAF, Ilboudo H, Kaboré J, Kaboré JW, Camara O, Bamba M, et al. Analytical sensitivity of loopamp and quantitative real-time PCR on dried blood spots and their potential role in monitoring human African trypanosomiasis elimination. Exp Parasitol. 2020;219:108014.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B19"><label>19.</label><mixed-citation>Jamonneau V, Camara O, Ilboudo H, Peylhard M, Koffi M, Sakande H, et al. Accuracy of individual rapid tests for serodiagnosis of gambiense sleeping sickness in West Africa. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2015;9:e0003480.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B20"><label>20.</label><mixed-citation>Büscher P, Mumba Ngoyi D, Kaboré J, Lejon V, Robays J, Jamonneau V, et al. Improved models of mini anion exchange centrifugation technique (mAECT) and modified single centrifugation (MSC) for Sleeping sickness diagnosis and staging. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2009;3:e471.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B21"><label>21.</label><mixed-citation>Koné M, Kaba D, Kaboré J, Thomas LF, Falzon LC, Koffi M, et al. Passive surveillance of human African trypanosomiasis in Côte d’Ivoire: understanding prevalence, clinical symptoms and signs, and diagnostic test characteristics. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2021;15:e0009656. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0009656</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B22"><label>22.</label><mixed-citation>Hasker E, Kwete J, Inocencio da Luz R, et al. Innovative digital technologies for quality assurance of diagnosis of human African trypanosomiasis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2018;12:e0006664. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0006664</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B23"><label>23.</label><mixed-citation>Dohoo I, Martin W, Stryhn H. Veterinary epidemiologic research. Charlottetown: University of Prince Edward Island. Preventive Veterinary Medicine. 2003;68(s 2–4):289–292. doi: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2004.11.001</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B24"><label>24.</label><mixed-citation>Chen JJ. Communicating complex information: The interpretation of statistical interaction in multiple logistic regression analysis. Am J Public Health. 2003;93:1376–1377. doi: 10.2105/ajph.93.9.1376-a</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B25"><label>25.</label><mixed-citation>Landis JR, Koch GG. The measurement of observer agreement for categorical data. Biometrics. 1977;33:159–174.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B26"><label>26.</label><mixed-citation>World Health Organization. Control and surveillance of human African trypanosomiasis: report of a WHO Expert Committee. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2013. Available from: https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/95732</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B27"><label>27.</label><mixed-citation>Hasker E, Lumbala C, Mbo F, et al. Health care-seeking behaviour and diagnostic delays for human African trypanosomiasis in the Democratic Republic of the Congo: Diagnosing HAT in DRC. Trop Med Int Health. 2011;16:869–874. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3156.2011.02772.x</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B28"><label>28.</label><mixed-citation>Camara M, Kaba D, KagbaDouno M, et al. Human African trypanosomiasis in the mangrove forest in Guinea: epidemiological and clinical features in two adjacent outbreak areas. Med Trop. 2005;65:155–161. (In French)</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B29"><label>29.</label><mixed-citation>Vanhecke C, Guevart E, Ezzedine K, et al. Human African trypanosomiasis in mangrove epidemiologic area. Presentation, diagnosis and treatment in Guinea, 2005–2007. Pathol Biol. 2010;58:110–116. (In French) doi: 10.1016/j.patbio.2009.07.033</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B30"><label>30.</label><mixed-citation>Jannin J, Moulia-Pelat JP, Chanfreau B, et al. African human trypanosomiasis: study of a scoring system of presumptive diagnosis in the Congo. Bull World Health Organ. 1993;71:215–222. (In French)</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B31"><label>31.</label><mixed-citation>Lumbala C, Biéler S, Kayembe S, et al. Prospective evaluation of a rapid diagnostic test for Trypanosoma brucei gambiense infection developed using recombinant antigens. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2018;12:e0006386. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0006386</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B32"><label>32.</label><mixed-citation>Boelaert M, Mukendi D, Bottieau E, et al. A phase III diagnostic accuracy study of a rapid diagnostic test for diagnosis of second-stage human African trypanosomiasis in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. EBioMedicine. 2018;27:11–17. doi: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2017.10.032</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B33"><label>33.</label><mixed-citation>Lumbala C, Bessell PR, Lutumba P, et al. Performance of the SD BIOLINE® HAT rapid test in various diagnostic algorithms for gambiense human African trypanosomiasis in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. PLoS ONE. 2017;12:e0180555. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0180555</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B34"><label>34.</label><mixed-citation>Büscher P, Gilleman Q, Lejon V. Rapid diagnostic test for sleeping sickness. N Engl J Med. 2013;368:1069–1070. doi: 10.1056/NEJMc1210373</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B35"><label>35.</label><mixed-citation>Compaoré CFA, Kaboré J, Ilboudo H, et al. Monitoring the elimination of gambiense human African trypanosomiasis in the historical focus of Batié, South-West Burkina Faso. Parasite. 2022;29:25. doi: 10.1051/parasite/2022024</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B36"><label>36.</label><mixed-citation>Geerts M, Van Reet N, Leyten S, et al. Trypanosoma brucei gambiense-iELISA: a promising new test for the postelimination monitoring of human African trypanosomiasis. Clin Infect Dis. 2021;73:e2477–e2483. doi: 10.1093/cid/ciaa1264</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B37"><label>37.</label><mixed-citation>Mumba Ngoyi D, Ali Ekangu R, Mumvemba Kodi MF, et al. Performance of parasitological and molecular techniques for the diagnosis and surveillance of gambiense sleeping sickness. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2014;8:e2954. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0002954</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B38"><label>38.</label><mixed-citation>Hasker E, Lutumba P, Mumba D, et al. Diagnostic accuracy and feasibility of serological tests on filter paper samples for outbreak detection of T.b. gambiense human African trypanosomiasis. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2010;83:374–379. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.2010.09-0735</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B39"><label>39.</label><mixed-citation>Ngay Lukusa I, Van Reet N, Mumba Ngoyi D, et al. Trypanosome SL-RNA detection in blood and cerebrospinal fluid to demonstrate active gambiense human African trypanosomiasis infection. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2021;15:e0009739. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0009739</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B40"><label>40.</label><mixed-citation>Pepin J, Guern C, Milord F, Bokelo M. Integration of African human trypanosomiasis control in a network of multipurpose health centers. Bull World Health Organ. 1989;67:301–308.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B41"><label>41.</label><mixed-citation>Kande Betu Kumeso V, Kalonji Mutombo W, Rembry S, et al. Efficacy and safety of acoziborole in patients with human African trypanosomiasis caused by Trypanosoma brucei gambiense: a multicentre, open-label, single-arm, phase 2/3 trial. Lancet Infect Dis. 2022. doi: 10.1016/S1473-3099(22)00660-0</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B42"><label>42.</label><mixed-citation>World Health Organization. Target product profile for a gambiense human African trypanosomiasis test to identify individuals to receive widened treatment; 2022. Available from: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240043299</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B43"><label>43.</label><mixed-citation>Sima N, Dujeancourt-Henry A, Perlaza BL, et al. SHERLOCK4HAT: a CRISPR-based tool kit for diagnosis of human African trypanosomiasis. Biomedicine. 2022;85:104308. doi: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2022.104308</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B44"><label>44.</label><mixed-citation>Lejon V, Camara O, Camara M, et al. Passive case detection of human African trypanosomiasis in Guinea: symptoms and signs, rapid diagnostic test results and laboratory test results. DataSuds; 2022. doi: 10.23708/ZDD0OW</mixed-citation></ref></ref-list></back></article>
